Anyone seeking proof that the people of Innsbruck have always been an active bunch might turn to the painting Winter Landscape by the Dutch artist Pieter Bruegel (c. 1525–1569) from the sixteenth century. On his return journey north from Italy, the master likely stopped in Innsbruck and observed the local population ice skating on the frozen Lake Ambras. In his Handbook for Travellers in Tyrol (1851), Beda Weber described the leisure habits of Innsbruck’s inhabitants, including ice skating at Lake Ambras: “The lake nearby (note: Amras), a pool in the marshy area, is used by skaters in winter.” To this day, wearing sports clothing in almost any situation is perfectly normal for Innsbruck residents. While in other cities functional clothing or hiking and sports shoes might draw raised eyebrows in restaurants or offices, at the foot of the Nordkette such attire hardly stands out. This was not always the case, however. The path from the ice-skating peasant to the active citizen was a long one. In the Middle Ages and early modern period, leisure and free time for activities such as hunting or riding were largely privileges of the aristocracy. Only with the changing living conditions of the nineteenth century did a significant portion of the population—especially in urban areas—experience something resembling leisure for the first time. Increasingly, people no longer worked in agriculture but as workers and employees in offices, workshops, and factories according to regulated schedules. Industrialised England played a pioneering role, where workers and employees gradually began freeing themselves from the excessive demands of early industrial capitalism. Sixteen‑hour workdays were not only detrimental to workers’ health; employers also realised that overwork reduced productivity. Since the 1860s, efforts had been made to introduce an eight-hour working day. In 1873, Austrian printers established a ten-hour working day, and in 1918 Austria adopted a 48-hour workweek. By 1930, a 40-hour week had become standard in industrial enterprises. People from all social classes—not just the aristocracy—now had the time and energy for hobbies, club life, and sport. English tourists, in particular, introduced new sports, disciplines, and equipment. The cost of equipment largely determined whether a sport remained reserved for the bourgeoisie or was accessible to workers. Sledding, for example, became widespread around the turn of the century, while bobsleigh and skeleton remained elite sports. Sport was not only a leisure activity but also a marker of social distinction: the working class, bourgeoisie, and aristocracy all shaped their identities through the sports they practised. Nobles maintained traditions such as riding and hunting; the bourgeoisie displayed individuality and wealth through expensive equipment like bicycles; and the working class played football or engaged in wrestling and physical contests.

By the mid-nineteenth century, athletes, like singers, museum and theatre enthusiasts, scientists, and lovers of literature, began to come together in associations. Gymnasts were the pioneers of organized club sport in Innsbruck. Gymnastics was considered the quintessential form of sport in the German-speaking world. Competition was not the primary focus; rather, members were expected to train their bodies in order to serve the national body effectively in times of war. As sedentary professions—especially academic ones—became more common, gymnastics was seen as a form of balance. Looking at historical images of gymnasts practicing and performing their exercises, one cannot fail to notice the distinctly military character of these events. Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852), commonly known as “Turnvater Jahn,” was not only a leading advocate of physical exercise but also the intellectual founder of the Lützow Free Corps, which fought against Napoleon as a kind of all-German volunteer army. One of the best-known mottos attributed to him is: “Hatred of all foreign things is the German’s duty.” In Saggen, Jahnstraße and a small park with a monument still commemorate Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. The German gymnastics clubs, much like student fraternities, played a significant role in the emergence of the national movement. It therefore took some time before the first official gymnastics club could be established. Gymnasts, who were regarded as particularly liberal and aligned with the Greater German idea, were viewed with suspicion by the Habsburg authorities under Metternich. The founding of gymnastics clubs was banned throughout the German-speaking world. Only one year after the social upheavals of 1848 was the Innsbruck Gymnastics Club (ITV) officially founded. After a conservative backlash in 1850, during which gymnastics clubs were once again banned, the development of the Austrian Imperial Council in the 1860s spurred the formation of political parties. Sports clubs benefited from this as their precursor organisations. In 1863, the ITV was founded for the second time and continues to exist to this day. Soon, Christian, socialist, and Greater German associations emerged, with people gathering in different clubs depending on their ideological and social affiliations.

Among the earliest sports facilities were swimming baths. The first bathing establishment welcomed swimmers from 1833 onward in Hötting, at the open-air pool by the Gießen stream. Additional facilities soon followed near Büchsenhausen Castle, as well as a complex next to what is now the Sillpark site, which was divided into separate areas for women and men. Particularly beautifully situated was the Schönruh outdoor pool above Ambras Castle, which opened in 1929 shortly after the indoor swimming pool in Pradl had been built. The population had grown significantly, and so too had people’s enthusiasm for swimming as a leisure activity. In 1961, the range of sports facilities at Tivoli was expanded with the addition of the Tivoli outdoor pool. In 1883, cyclists founded the Bicycle Club. The first cycling races had been held in France and Great Britain from 1869 onward. The English city of Coventry was also a pioneer in the production of the elegant “steel steeds,” which were extremely expensive. In the same year, the Innsbruck press reported on these modern means of individual transport, when “several gentlemen ventured onto the streets with multiple velocipedes ordered from the firm Peterlongo.” In 1876, cycling was temporarily banned in Innsbruck due to repeated accidents. Cycling was also quickly recognised by the authorities as a form of physical training that could be used for military purposes. A decree from the Imperial Ministry of War was reported in the press:

“It is intended, as in previous years, to also employ cyclists in this year’s exercises involving combined arms… The commands of the infantry and Tyrolean rifle regiments, as well as the field rifle battalions, are to call upon those individuals who are registered as cyclists and are obliged to participate in military exercises this year to report for duty with their bicycles.”

Unter der Regie des Münchners Anton Schlumpeter entwickelte sich die Szene vor der Jahrhundertwende weiter. Schlumpeter deckte mit einer Fahrschule, einem Geschäft für Fahrräder samt Werkstatt und schließlich mit den in seiner Wiltener Fabrik produzierten Fahrradmarke Veldidena die Wertschöpfungskette komplett ab. Die Velocipedisten siedelten sich 1896 im Rahmen der „Internationalen Ausstellung für körperliche Erziehung, Gesundheitspflege und Sport“ im Saggen nahe der Viaduktbögen mit einer Radrennbahn samt Tribüne an. Die Innsbrucker Nachrichten berichteten begeistert von dieser Neuerung, war doch der Radsport bis zu den ersten Autorennen europaweit die beliebteste Sportdisziplin:

“The Innsbruck cycling track, which is to be opened in the coming weeks in connection with the international exhibition, will have a length of 400 metres and a width of 6 metres… The velocipede racing track, the construction of which is chiefly due to the efforts of the President of the Tyrolean Cyclists’ Association, State Railway Chief Engineer R. von Weinong, will be one of the most outstanding and best-equipped cycling tracks on the continent. On the 29th of this month (June 1896), a major international cycling competition will be held on the Innsbruck track for the first time, and in the future, regular annual velocipede prize races are to follow, which will undoubtedly be of considerable benefit to both the promotion of cycling as a sport and tourism in Innsbruck.”

The cement railway was used for daily training in the warm season. The smoke-filled air as the locomotives passed by was probably not good for the lungs. After initial enthusiasm, Schlumpeter had to step in to save the railway. The enterprising entrepreneur realised that the cyclists were not providing enough activity and, on his own initiative, began to build a kind of predecessor to today's Olympiaworld at the Tivoli with several facilities for sport. In addition to cycling races, boxers could compete in the ring. He also had tennis courts built in Saggen. Despite all his efforts, the facility was demolished again in 1901.

Football proved more sustainable than cycling in establishing itself in Innsbruck. For a long time, it was regarded as an English sport and therefore as “un-German.” Unlike gymnastics, it was considered too focused on commerce and professionalisation, and it was seen as offering too little military, educational, or societal value. It was only with the International Exhibition of 1896 in Saggen that football began to gain a certain level of acceptance. There were already interregional matches, for example a 1–1 draw between the team of the Innsbruck Gymnastics Club and Bayern Munich. In order to compete against other teams, the footballers were required to leave their parent organisation, the ITV. The “Aryan clause” embedded there not only prohibited the admission of Jewish players, but also banned matches against teams that included Jewish players. In 1903, the club Fußball Innsbruck was founded, which would later develop into SVI. Matches were played on a football field in front of the Sieberer orphanage. In Wilten, by then part of Innsbruck, SK Wilten was established in 1910. The football ground Besele, which still exists today next to the West Cemetery, was equipped with grandstands to accommodate growing numbers of spectators. In 1913, Wacker Innsbruck was officially founded, the club that remains the most successful football team in Tyrol to this day. For a long time, successful football remained largely confined to Vienna. While the Austrian “Wunderteam” gained international recognition in the 1930s and even won the precursor to today’s European Championship, football in Tyrol was played at a more modest level. It was only after the Second World War that national and international successes began to emerge. Ten Austrian championship titles and reaching the semi-finals of the European Cup testify to the deep-rooted enthusiasm for football among the people of Innsbruck.

In addition to the various summer sports, winter sports also became increasingly popular. Sledding had already become a popular leisure activity by the mid-nineteenth century on the hills surrounding Innsbruck. The first ice rink opened in 1870 as a winter alternative to swimming, on the grounds of the outdoor pool in Höttinger Au. Unlike water sports, ice skating was an activity that could be enjoyed jointly by men and women. Instead of meeting during Sunday strolls, young couples could arrange to meet at the ice rink without parental supervision. In 1884, the Ice Skating Club was founded and used the exhibition grounds as its rink. With facilities such as the ice rink in front of the Imperial and Royal shooting range in Mariahilf, Lake Lans, Lake Ambras, the swimming complex in Höttinger Au, and the Sill Canal in Kohlstatt, Innsbruck offered numerous opportunities for ice skating. As early as 1908, the first ice hockey club was established with the IEV. Skiing, initially a Nordic-style pastime practiced in the valleys, soon spread as a downhill discipline as well. The Academic Alpine Club Innsbruck was founded in 1893 and organised the first ski race on Tyrolean soil two years later, running from Sistrans to Ambras Castle. The sports shop Witting, established in 1867 on Maria-Theresien-Straße, demonstrated strong business acumen by selling ski equipment to a well-to-do clientele even before 1900. Following St. Anton and Kitzbühel, the first Innsbruck ski club was founded in 1906. Equipment remained simple for a long time, allowing skiing primarily on relatively gentle slopes, combining alpine and Nordic techniques similar to cross-country skiing. Nevertheless, skiers ventured to descend slopes in places such as Mutters or the Ferrari meadow. From 1928 onward, two cable cars led up to both the Nordkette and the Patscherkofel, making skiing significantly more attractive. Skiing achieved its breakthrough as a national sport with the World Ski Championships held in Innsbruck in February 1933. On an unmarked course, participants had to cover 10 kilometres and 1,500 metres of elevation between the Glungezer and Tulfes. The two local athletes Gustav Lantschner and Inge Wersin‑Lantschner won multiple medals in these competitions, further fuelling the growing enthusiasm for alpine winter sports in Innsbruck.

Competitions in various sports—above all cycling, boxing, athletics, and football—had become mass phenomena by the interwar period at the latest. In 1924, Joseph Roth (1894–1939) wrote his praise poem dedicated to sport:

The zeitgeist stretches the biceps and fulfils,

with knockout and belly kick the century,

if there is someone who wonders about it,

never read the newspaper Sport im Bild.

After the Second World War, sport finally became a mass phenomenon. While footballers were no longer able to build on the successes of the pre-war period, it was above all skiers who contributed to the slowly emerging sense of national identity among Austrians. Innsbruck remains strongly identified with sport to this day. With events such as the UEFA European Championship in 2008, the UCI Road World Championships in 2018, and the Climbing World Championships in 2018, the city has been able to reconnect—also at the elite level—with the “golden years” of the 1930s, which saw two World Ski Championships, as well as with the Olympic Games of 1964 and 1976. However, it is less elite sport than grassroots participation that contributes to Innsbruck’s reputation as the self-proclaimed “sports capital of Austria.” There are hardly any residents who do not at least strap on alpine skis from time to time. Mountain biking on the numerous alpine pastures around Innsbruck, ski touring, sport climbing, and hiking are exceptionally popular among the local population and are deeply embedded in everyday life.

There are events that remain in the collective memory of a community for generations. You don't have to have been there, or even be in the world, to know that Franz Klammer raced to the gold medal in the Olympic downhill on the Patscherkofel on 5 February 1976 in his yellow one-piece suit. Franz Josef I may have climbed the Patscherkofel in 1848, but he became a legend on this mountain. Kaiser Franz Bracket. "Jawoll! 1;45,73 für unseren Franzi Klammer," could be heard from countless TV sets in Austria at the time. In order to be able to follow the national hero Klammer on his devil's ride, the schoolchildren were allowed to stay at home on the day of the men's downhill, just like in 1964. The streets were also empty during this hellish ride. Klammer achieved what many emperors, kings and politicians had failed to do. He united the nation of Austria. "Mi hats obageibtlt von oben bis unten, I hatt nie gedacht, dass i Bestzeit foa,“ gab Klammer im Kärntner Dialekt beim Siegerinterview zu Protokoll. Kein Tiroler, nobody is perfect, aber die Olympischen Spiele waren für die Gastgebernation Österreich schon am zweiten Tag gerettet. 1976 fanden die Olympischen Winterspiele bereits zum zweiten Mal in Innsbruck statt. Eigentlich wäre Denver an der Reihe gewesen, wegen eines Referendums auf Grund finanzieller und ökologischer Bedenken trat man in Colorado als Ausrichter zurück. Innsbruck setzte sich als Gastgeber im zweiten Versuch gegen Lake Placid, Chamoix und Tampere durch. Zum ersten Mal war man 12 Jahre zuvor Ausrichter der Olympiade gewesen. Vom 29. Januar bis zum 9. Februar 1964 war Innsbruck der Nabel gewesen, nachdem man sich mit der Bewerbung gegen Calgary und Lahti durchgesetzt hatte. Erheblicher Schneemangel bereitete Probleme bei der Durchführung etlicher Events. Nur mit Hilfe des Bundesheeres, das Schnee und Eis aus dem Hochgebirge zu den Wettkampfstätten brachte, konnten die 34 Bewerbe über die Bühne gehen.

The opening ceremony in the packed Berg Isel Stadium can be clearly seen in archive photos. Unlike the elaborate ceremonies of today's Olympic Games, the procedure in the 1960s was still unspectacular. The Wilten town music erfreute die internationalen Gäste mit Tiroler Blasmusik. Beim Einmarsch der Fahnen konnten Besucher zum ersten Mal im Rahmen von olympischen Spielen die Flagge Nordkoreas erblicken. Die Tiroler Schützen überwachten mit Argusaugen die olympische Flamme. Als Logo wurden lediglich die Olympischen Ringe über das Wappen der Stadt gelegt, ein Maskottchen gab es noch nicht.Auch die Sportbewerbe waren weniger professionell organisiert als bei heutigen olympischen Spielen. Das Bobrennen fand zum ersten Mal auf einer Kunsteisbahn statt, wenn auch noch nicht im heutigen Igler Eiskanal. Die Eishockeyspiele wurden zum Teil noch in der Messehalle in sehr moderatem Rahmen abgehalten. Skibewerbe, wie der Slalom und Riesenslalom der Damen, in dem sich in jeweils anderer Konstellation die französischen Schwestern Christine und Marielle Goitschel Gold und Silber umhängen ließen, fanden in der Axamer Lizum statt. Am Berg Isel verfolgten laut offiziellen Angaben 80.000 Zuschauer das Spektakel, als sich der Finne Veikko Kankonnen Gold im Skisprung sicherte. Im Eishockeyfinale triumphierte die Sowjetunion vor Schweden. Mit 11 Goldmedaillen sicherte sich die UDSSR auch Platz 1 im Medaillenspiegel, mit vier Goldenen wurde Österreich sensationell Zweiter.

The opening of the 1976 Games also took place on Berg Isel. In memory of 1964, two flames were lit on Mount Isel during the opening ceremony. Most of the 37 competitions this time took place at the same venues in Innsbruck, Axams, Igls and Seefeld as in 1964. The ice stadium and ski jumping arena were still suitable for the Olympics. A new artificial ice rink was built in Igls. The Axamer Lizum was given a new standing track to allow the athletes to start on the Hoadl zu bringen. Schnee war erneut Mangelware im Vorfeld und man bangte erneut, rechtzeitig schlug das Wetter im letzten Moment aber um und bescherte Innsbruck das Weiße Gold. Das Schneemanndla round snowman with a carrot nose and Tyrolean hat, the mascot of the 1976 Games was probably a good omen.

Die größte Veränderung zwischen den beiden olympischen Spielen innerhalb von zwölf Jahren war der Status der Athleten. Waren bei den ersten Spielen offiziell nur Amateure am Start, also Sportler, die einem Beruf nachgingen, konnten 1976 Profisportler antreten. Auch die Übertragungs- und Fotoqualität war um einiges höher als bei der ersten Innsbrucker Edition. Fernsehen hatte dem Radio mittlerweile den Rang abgelaufen. Die deutsche Skirennläuferin Rosi Mittermaier wurde perfekt in Szene gesetzt bei ihren Fahrten zu Doppelgold und Silber bei den Damenskirennen. Das Eishockeyturnier gewann erneut die Sowjetunion vor Schweden, bereits zum vierten Mal in Folge. Auch der Medaillenspiegel sah am Ende die UDSSR wieder ganz oben, diesmal vor der DDR. Österreich konnte nur zwei Goldene erringen. Mit Klammers Gold in der Abfahrt war dies allerdings nur Nebensache. Der Patscherkofel und Österreichs Franzi sind seither untrennbar miteinander verbunden. Und auch wenn die Innsbrucker nicht ganz so sportlich sind, wie sie gerne wären, den Titel der Olympiastadt kann nach zwei Ausgaben plus einer Universiade und den Youth Olympic Games niemand wegdiskutieren.

The city, supported by federal funds, was also very generous with the non-sporting infrastructure for both games. Following the rapid reconstruction of the city after the war, the city was modernised in the run-up to the Games. Innsbruck's first Olympic edition took place during the period of the economic miracle. In 1963, the Olympic Bridge, which connected the west of the city with the competition venues, was built. Until then, Innsbruck's east-west traffic had travelled through the city centre in a complicated manner. The individual streets between Amraser-See-Straße in the east and Bachlechnerstraße in the west, which make up the Südring arterial road today, were only subsequently developed and were previously quiet parts of the suburbs. Meadows and fields characterised the scenery. The comparison of aerial photographs from 1960 and 2020 is fascinating. In Amras, where today the daily Rush Hour abspielt, bis in die 1970er Jahre Bauernhöfe und einzelne Wohnhäuser. In der heutigen Egger-Lienz-Straße beim Westbahnhof verlief das Bahnviadukt der Westbahn. Alte Fotos zeigen die Gleise, daneben Bäume und spielende Kinder. Rund um die heutige Graßmayr junction a new neighbourhood was created almost in passing. The Department stores' forumwhich today houses a cinema, was a sensation and a sign of Innsbruck's modernisation.

An Olympic village was built twice and living space was created that is still in use today. Part of the former village of Arzl, which had belonged to Innsbruck since 1940, was chosen for this purpose. Today's district O-Village im Osten der Stadt fungierte während der Spiele als Olympisches Dorf für die Athleten, das durch die Reichenauer Brücke über den Inn mit der Innenstadt und den Wettkampfstätten verbunden wurde. In der kaum besiedelten Arzler Au wurde 1961 mit dem Bau der ersten Wohnblöcke begonnen. Der Arzler Schießstand, den man auf einer Landkarte von 1960 noch sehen kann, wurde eine Talstufe weiter nach oben verlegt. In den 1970er Jahren kamen weitere Blöcke dazu. Heute ist das O-Dorf, trotz der wenig beschaulichen Hochhäuser im Stil der 1960er und 1970er Jahre, dank seiner Lage am Inn, den Grünflächen und der guten Anbindung an den öffentlichen Verkehr ein lebenswertes Grätzel. Viele weitere Bauten in Innsbruck, die während der Olympiade als Infrastruktur für Presse und Medien genutzt wurden, gehen ebenfalls auf die Olympischen Spiele zurück. Die Pädagogische Akademie PÄDAK in Wilten, die IVB-Halle und das Landessportheim können als olympisches Erbe betrachtet werden. Der wenig prächtige Bau, der das ehemalige Hotel Holiday Inn neben der Triumphpforte beherbergt, das in den letzten Jahrzehnten eine Vielzahl an Betreiberwechseln durchmachte, entstand ebenfalls im Rahmen der olympischen Renaissance. Auch ein Erbe der olympischen Spiele ist etwas, das man heute verzweifelt zu ändern versucht: Das olympiabedingte Wachstum fiel mit den 60er und 70er Jahren in die frühe Blütezeit des Automobils.

For Innsbruck, the Olympic Games were not only a starting point for modernity in terms of winter sports and infrastructure. The events also mentally put an end to the stale atmosphere of the grey post-war period and spread a feeling of departure from the status of a provincial nest. It may no longer have been a royal seat as in Maximilian's time, but at least it was back on the international map. Thanks be to Emperor Franz!

Industrialisation and the rise of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century transformed society for better and for worse. Urbanisation was increasingly perceived by many people as a burden. Although many workers and employees in Innsbruck had, in absolute terms, more resources at their disposal than ever before, the pressure to participate socially also grew. From the 1890s onwards, several advertising columns (Litfaßsäulen) appeared in Innsbruck, on which artistically designed posters promoted the new variety of products. Department stores and fashion retailers made social differences within an increasingly differentiated society more visible than ever. Anyone who wanted to keep up in the new bourgeois class had to be able to afford membership in this emerging consumer society. At the same time, the strains of industrialisation increased. Traffic on the streets, factory emissions, cramped living conditions in tenement blocks, and the previously unknown haste brought about by the strict structuring of time—which made new illnesses such as neurasthenia socially acceptable—gave rise to counter-movements. Although Innsbruck could not be compared with Paris or London in terms of size or intensity of industrialisation, the social gap was nonetheless enormous for many residents of formerly rural villages such as Pradl and for workers who had migrated from the countryside.

„Light air and sun“ war das Motto der Lebensreform, einer Sammelbewegung alternativer Lebensmodelle, die im späten 19. Jahrhundert in Deutschland im Gleichschritt mit der Entwicklung der Sozialdemokratie ihren Anfang nahm. Beide Ideen waren Reaktionen auf die Lebensbedingungen in den rasant wachsenden Städten. Schon vor der politischen Teilhabe beeinflussten Lebensreform und Sozialdemokratie Gesellschaft, Kunst und Architektur. Man wollte sich von dem, was Max Weber als protestantische Ethik beschrieb, der Industrie, den Stechuhren, ganz allgemein dem rasenden technischen Fortschritt mit allen Auswirkungen auf den Menschen und das Sozialgefüge, abgrenzen. Der Mensch als Individuum, nicht seine Wirtschaftsleistung, sollte wieder im Mittelpunkt stehen. Was dem Arbeiter Karl Marx´ Schriften, waren der gehobenen Bürgerschaft Kunst und Architektur. Der Jugendstil war der künstlerische Ausdruck auf dieses „Back to the origin“ der Jahrhundertwende. Das verspielte Element war das Gegenteil zum stets symmetrischen und aufgeräumten Historismus. Das Winklerhaus ist eines der wenigen im Stadtbild erhaltenen Zeugnisse dieses Zeitgeistes. Seit 1869 erschien die German Quarterly Journal for Public Health Care, which focussed on improving nutrition, hygiene and living space. In 1881 the Austrian Society for Healthcare gegründet. Private Vereine veranstalteten Aufklärungsveranstaltungen zum sauberen und gesunden Leben. Man betrieb politisches Lobbying zur Errichtung von Parks im öffentlichen Raum und der Verbesserung der Infrastruktur wie Bädern, Krankenhäusern, Kanalisation und Wasserleitungen. Assanation und Sozialhygiene waren Schlagwörter einer bürgerlichen Elite, die um ihre Mitmenschen und die Volksgesundheit besorgt war. Anstelle der sozialistischen Revolution sollte der christliche Gedanke der Nächstenliebe die Gesellschaft voranbringen. Wie alle elitären Bewegungen nahm auch die Lebensreform teils absurde und sektenartige Blüten an. Bewegungen wie der Vegetarismus, FKK, Gartenstädte, verschiedene esoterische Strömungen und andere alternative Lebensformen, die sich bis heute in der einen oder anderen Form erhalten konnten, entstanden in dieser Zeit. Auch Orientalismus und Spiritismus feierten in der Upper Class ein fröhliches Dasein.

This often well-intentioned but eccentric lifestyle remained largely inaccessible to workers; however, it formed, in many respects, the ideological core of the realpolitik of a then-young political party. Early Social Democrats confronted the everyday realities of workers and sought practical improvements beyond theoretical doctrine. Their basic demands are strikingly similar to today’s, albeit at a different level. Improving working conditions and housing ranked high on most people’s wish lists. Many tenement blocks were dreary, overcrowded environments lacking infrastructure such as sports facilities or parks. Modern housing estates were to be functional, comfortable, affordable, and integrated with green spaces. These ideas had also taken hold in public institutions. In 1907, Albert Gruber, a professor at the Innsbruck vocational school, wrote:

"I've often heard people say that we don't need plants in Innsbruck, that nature provides us with everything, but that's not true. What could be nicer than when professionals can walk from their place of work to their home through a series of plants. It turns the journey to and from work into a relaxing walk. Incidentally, there are many reasons why planting trees and gardens in urban areas is beneficial. I do not want to emphasise the interaction between people and plants, which is probably well known. In another way, plants improve the air we breathe by reducing dust."

Even before the First World War, changes occurred in everyday political life. Social Democracy had existed as a political party since 1889, but under the Habsburg monarchy its scope for political influence was very limited. Socialism was considered unchristian and viewed with suspicion in the “Holy Land” of Tyrol. Nevertheless, the labour movement was significant as a secularly organised social counterweight and alternative to the Catholic structures that dominated Tyrol. In 1865, the first Tyrolean Workers’ Educational Association was founded in Innsbruck. Workers were to become aware of their position within society in preparation for the impending world revolution. For this, it was essential to possess at least a basic level of education and to be able to read and write. Ten years later, Franz Reisch founded the General Workers’ Association in Innsbruck. Two years after that, the empire-wide “General Workers’, Sick, and Invalids’ Fund” was launched. Despite state repression, considerable gatherings of “radicals” repeatedly took place. From 1893 onwards, the Social Democratic Volkszeitung für Tirol und Vorarlberg was published in Innsbruck as a countervoice to the Catholic press. It was here that a young printer from the eastern part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began his career in Innsbruck’s local politics. The Bohemian-born Josef Prachensky (1861–1931) had discovered the labour movement during the printers’ strike in Vienna while on his journeyman travels. It is no longer entirely clear whether he first fell in love with the city or with his future wife. What is known is that he took over the management of the printing house that published the Social Democratic workers’ newspaper. Prachensky played a key role in founding the Social Democratic Party of Tyrol in 1890. In 1899, he was a driving force behind the opening of the First Tyrolean Workers’ Bakery (Erste Tiroler Arbeiter-Bäckerei, ETAB) on what is now Maximilianstraße. This cooperative aimed to produce high-quality bread under good working and hygienic conditions at fair prices. After several relocations, the ETAB settled on Hallerstraße, where it produced fresh baked goods daily until 1999. With his views and business initiatives, Prachensky quickly gained a reputation as an anarchist—a current within the political left that enjoyed a certain popularity around the turn of the century, but was also feared and discredited due to its often violent activism. In addition to the ETAB, Prachensky supported the “Workers’ Consumers’ Association” and founded the alcohol-free beverage hall at Museumstraße 16, a venue that, in keeping with the ideals of the Lebensreform movement and socialism, sought to improve the general health of the working class. Where people had once fasted according to the Christian calendar, abstinence was now to purify body and mind according to the measure of individual reason and personal well-being. Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), co-author of the Communist Manifesto, had already recognised spirits and hard liquor as a social ill of the working class in the first half of the 19th century. The aim of steering people away from alcohol was shared by socialism and, in many respects, by various Christian organisations that preached abstinence. Alcoholics, after all, could neither launch a world revolution nor lead a God-fearing life according to church ideals—whether Catholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist. How little this approach succeeded in Innsbruck during the Belle Époque is illustrated by the rapid renaming of the establishment from Alcohol-Free to Reform, accompanied by the introduction of alcohol sales and Prachensky’s subsequent bankruptcy. One of his particular political concerns was to limit the influence of the Church within the school system, which in the 19th and early 20th centuries remained very strong even in nominally liberal Innsbruck, which was bound to follow national educational regulations. Although the liberal educational reform of 1869 was intended to push the clergy out of schools, their influence remained considerable in practice. Prachensky advocated giving children from working-class families at least a decent education, in order to provide them with a minimum chance of improving their living conditions. His demands around the turn of the century—for better and more uniform teacher salaries, a reduction in the proportion of religious instruction, support for less affluent children, and smaller class sizes—seem strikingly modern today.

The first free elections to the Imperial Council (Reichsrat) of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy for all male citizens in 1907 altered the political and social balance of power and gave Social Democrats new momentum, even though the census-based voting system still applied at the municipal level. The “common people” (Pöbel, colloquially referred to as Pofl) now had political representation. Important legislation—such as limits on working hours and improvements in working conditions—could now be demanded with greater force. The Crown Land of Tyrol, together with Upper Austria, had the longest working hours in the entire Danube Monarchy. Although trade union membership grew in number, Tyrol remained too heavily shaped by rural structures outside small urban centres to exert significant pressure. After the proclamation of the republic in 1918 and the introduction of universal suffrage at the municipal level, Social Democrats won the most votes in Innsbruck for the first time. However, the fulfilment of their demands still had to wait even after the first municipal elections following 1918. Innsbruck was “red,” but decisive authority over major political issues remained with the conservative provincial government. Although Innsbruck did not experience civil war–like conditions as seen in industrial strongholds such as Vienna, Linz, or Steyr, brawls, assassination attempts, and violence were nonetheless frequent. Prachensky—who, as a Social Democrat, had always resisted being labelled a “radical”—was drawn into the entrenched conflicts of the interwar period and founded the Tyrolean branch of the Republican Protection League (Republikanischer Schutzbund, RESCH), the counterpart to the right-wing paramilitary Heimwehr units.

In the 1950s, Innsbruck began to recover from the crisis and war years of the first half of the 20th century. On 15 May 1955, Federal Chancellor Leopold Figl declared with the famous words "Austria is free" and the signing of the State Treaty officially marked the political turning point. In many households, the "political turnaround" became established in the years known as Economic miracle moderate prosperity. Between 1953 and 1962, annual economic growth of over 6% allowed an increasing proportion of the population to dream of things that had long been exotic, such as refrigerators, their own bathroom or even a holiday in the south. This period brought not only material but also social change. People's desires became more outlandish with increasing prosperity and the lifestyle conveyed in advertising and the media. The phenomenon of a new youth culture began to spread gently amidst the grey society of small post-war Austria. The terms Teenager and "latchkey kid" entered the Austrian language in the 1950s. The big world came to Innsbruck via films. Cinema screenings and cinemas had already existed in Innsbruck at the turn of the century, but in the post-war period the programme was adapted to a young audience for the first time. Hardly anyone had a television set in their living room and the programme was meagre. The numerous cinemas courted the public's favour with scandalous films. From 1956, the magazine BRAVO. For the first time, there was a medium that was orientated towards the interests of young people. The first issue featured Marylin Monroe, with the question: „Marylin's curves also got married?“ The big stars of the early years were James Dean and Peter Kraus, before the Beatles took over in the 60s. After the Summer of Love Dr Sommer explained about love and sex. The church's omnipotent authority over the moral behaviour of adolescents began to crumble, albeit only slowly. The first photo love story with bare breasts did not follow until 1982. Until the 1970s, the opportunities for adolescent Innsbruckers were largely limited to pub parlours, shooting clubs and brass bands. Only gradually did bars, discos, nightclubs, pubs and event venues open. Events such as the 5 o'clock tea dance at the Sporthotel Igls attracted young people looking for a mate. The Cafe Central became the „second home of long-haired teenagers“, as the Tiroler Tageszeitung newspaper stated with horror in 1972. Establishments like the Falconry cellar in the Gilmstraße, the Uptown Jazzsalon in Hötting, the jazz club in the Hofgasse, the Clima Club in Saggen, the Scotch Club in the Angerzellgasse and the Tangent in Bruneckerstraße had nothing in common with the traditional Tyrolean beer and wine bar. The performances by the Rolling Stones and Deep Purple in the Olympic Hall in 1973 were the high point of Innsbruck's spring awakening for the time being. Innsbruck may not have become London or San Francisco, but it had at least breathed a breath of rock'n'roll. What is still anchored in cultural memory today as the '68 movement took place in the Holy Land hardly took place. Neither workers nor students took to the barricades in droves. The historian Fritz Keller described the „68 movement in Austria as "Mail fan“. Nevertheless, society was quietly and secretly changing. A look at the annual charts gives an indication of this. In 1964, it was still Chaplain Alfred Flury and Freddy with „Leave the little things“ and „Give me your word" and the Beatles with their German version of "Come, give me your hand who dominated the Top 10, musical tastes changed in the years leading up to the 1970s. Peter Alexander and Mireille Mathieu were still to be found in the charts. From 1967, however, it was international bands with foreign-language lyrics such as The Rolling Stones, Tom Jones, The Monkees, Scott McKenzie, Adriano Celentano or Simon and Garfunkel, who occupied the top positions in great density with partly socially critical lyrics.

This change provoked a backlash. The spearhead of the conservative counter-revolution was the Innsbruck bishop Paulus Rusch. Cigarettes, alcohol, overly permissive fashion, holidays abroad, working women, nightclubs, premarital sex, the 40-hour week, Sunday sporting events, dance evenings, mixed sexes in school and leisure - all of these things were strictly abhorrent to the strict churchman and follower of the Sacred Heart cult. Peter Paul Rusch was born in Munich in 1903 and grew up in Vorarlberg as the youngest of three children in a middle-class household. Both parents and his older sister died of tuberculosis before he reached adulthood. At the young age of 17, Rusch had to fend for himself early on in the meagre post-war period. Inflation had eaten up his father's inheritance, which could have financed his studies, in no time at all. Rusch worked for six years at the Bank for Tyrol and Vorarlberg, in order to finance his theological studies. He entered the Collegium Canisianum in 1927 and was ordained a priest of the Jesuit order six years later. His stellar career took the intelligent young man first to Lech and Hohenems as chaplain and then back to Innsbruck as head of the seminary. In 1938, he became titular bishop of Lykopolis and Apostolic Administrator for Tyrol and Vorarlberg. As the youngest bishop in Europe, he had to survive the harassment of the church by the National Socialist rulers. Although his critical attitude towards National Socialism was well known, Rusch himself was never imprisoned. Those in power were too afraid of turning the popular young bishop into a martyr.

After the war, the socially and politically committed bishop was at the forefront of reconstruction efforts. He wanted the church to have more influence on people's everyday lives again. His father had worked his way up from carpenter to architect and probably gave him a soft spot for the building industry. He also had his own experience at BTV. Thanks to his training as a banker, Rusch recognised the opportunities for the church to get involved and make a name for itself as a helper in times of need. It was not only the churches that had been damaged in the war that were rebuilt. The Catholic Youth under Rusch's leadership, was involved free of charge in the construction of the Heiligjahrsiedlung in the Höttinger Au. The diocese bought a building plot from the Ursuline order for this purpose. The loans for the settlers were advanced interest-free by the church. Decades later, his rustic approach to the housing issue would earn him the title of "Red Bishop" to the new home. In the modest little houses with self-catering gardens, in line with the ideas of the dogmatic and frugal "working-class bishop", 41 families, preferably with many children, found a new home.

By alleviating the housing shortage, the greatest threats in the Cold WarCommunism and socialism, from his community. The atheism prescribed by communism and the consumer-orientated capitalism that had swept into Western Europe from the USA after the war were anathema to him. In 1953, Rusch's book "Young worker, where to?". What sounds like revolutionary, left-wing reading from the Kremlin showed the principles of Christian social teaching, which castigated both capitalism and socialism. Families should live modestly in order to live in Christian harmony with the moderate financial means of a single father. Entrepreneurs, employees and workers were to form a peaceful unity. Co-operation instead of class warfare, the basis of today's social partnership. To each his own place in a Christian sense, a kind of modern feudal system that was already planned for use in Dollfuß's corporative state. He shared his political views with Governor Eduard Wallnöfer and Mayor Alois Lugger, who, together with the bishop, organised the Holy Trinity of conservative Tyrol at the time of the economic miracle. Rusch combined this with a latent Catholic anti-Semitism that was still widespread in Tyrol after 1945 and which, thanks to aberrations such as the veneration of the Anderle von Rinn has long been a tradition.

Education and training were of particular concern to the pugnacious Jesuit. The social formation across all classes by the soldiers of Christ could look back on a long tradition in Innsbruck. In 1909, the Jesuit priest and former prison chaplain Alois Mathiowitz (1853 - 1922) founded the Peter-Mayr-Bund. His approach was to put young people on the right path through leisure activities and sport and adults from working-class backgrounds through lectures and popular education. The workers' youth centre in Reichenauerstraße, which was built under his aegis, still serves as a youth centre and kindergarten today. Rusch also had experience with young people. In 1936, he was elected regional field master of the scouts in Vorarlberg. Despite a speech impediment, he was a charismatic guy and extremely popular with his young colleagues and teenagers. In his opinion, only a sound education under the wing of the church according to the Christian model could save the salvation of young people. In order to give young people a perspective and steer them in an orderly direction with a home and family, the Youth building society savings strengthened. In the parishes, kindergartens, youth centres and educational institutions such as the House of encounter on Rennweg in order to have education in the hands of the church right from the start. The vast majority of the social life of the city's young people did not take place in disreputable dive bars. Most young people simply didn't have the money to go out regularly. Many found their place in the more or less orderly channels of Catholic youth organisations. Alongside the ultra-conservative Bishop Rusch, a generation of liberal clerics grew up who became involved in youth work. In the 1960s and 70s, two church youth movements with great influence were active in Innsbruck. Sigmund Kripp and Meinrad Schumacher were responsible for this, who were able to win over teenagers and young adults with new approaches to education and a more open approach to sensitive topics such as sexuality and drugs. The education of the elite in the spirit of the Jesuit order was provided in Innsbruck from 1578 by the Marian Congregation. This youth organisation, still known today as the MK, took care of secondary school pupils. The MK had a strict hierarchical structure in order to give the young Soldaten Christi obedience from the very beginning. In 1959, Father Sigmund Kripp took over the leadership of the organisation. Under his leadership, the young people, with financial support from the church, state and parents and with a great deal of personal effort, set up projects such as the Mittergrathütte including its own material cable car in Kühtai and the legendary youth centre Kennedy House in the Sillgasse. Chancellor Klaus and members of the American embassy were present at the laying of the foundation stone for this youth centre, which was to become the largest of its kind in Europe with almost 1,500 members, as the building was dedicated to the first Catholic president of the USA, who had only recently been assassinated.

The other church youth organisation in Innsbruck was Z6. The city's youth chaplain, Chaplain Meinrad Schumacher, took care of the youth organisation as part of the Action 4-5-6 to all young people who are in the MK or the Catholic Student Union had no place. Working-class children and apprentices met in various youth centres such as Pradl or Reichenau before the new centre, also built by the members themselves, was opened at Zollerstraße 6 in 1971. Josef Windischer took over the management of the centre. The Z6 already had more to do with what Dennis Hopper and Peter Fonda were doing on the big screen on their motorbikes in Easy Rider was shown. Things were rougher here than in the MK. Rock gangs like the Santanas, petty criminals and drug addicts also spent their free time in Z6. While Schumacher reeled off his programme upstairs with the "good" youngsters, Windischer and the Outsiders the basement to help the lost sheep as much as possible.

At the end of the 1960s, both the MK and the Z6 decided to open up to non-members. Girls' and boys' groups were partially merged and non-members were also admitted. Although the two youth centres had different target groups, the concept was the same. Theological knowledge and Christian morals were taught in a playful, age-appropriate environment. Sections such as chess, football, hockey, basketball, music, cinema films and a party room catered to the young people's needs for games, sport and the removal of taboos surrounding their first sexual experiences. The youth centres offered a space where young people of both sexes could meet. However, the MK in particular remained an institution that had nothing to do with the wild life of the '68ers, as it is often portrayed in films. For example, dance courses did not take place during Advent, carnival or on Saturdays, and for under-17s they were forbidden.

Nevertheless, the youth centres went too far for Bishop Rusch. The critical articles in the MK newspaper We discuss, which reached a circulation of over 2,000 copies, found less and less favour. Solidarity with Vietnam was one thing, but criticism of marksmen and the army could not be tolerated. After years of disputes between the bishop and the youth centre, it came to a showdown in 1973. When Father Kripp published his book Farewell to tomorrow in which he reported on his pedagogical concept and the work in the MK, there were non-public proceedings within the diocese and the Jesuit order against the director of the youth centre. Despite massive protests from parents and members, Kripp was removed. Neither the intervention within the church by the eminent theologian Karl Rahner, nor a petition initiated by the artist Paul Flora, nor regional and national outrage in the press could save the overly liberal Father from the wrath of Rusch, who even secured the papal blessing from Rome for his removal from office.

In July 1974, the Z6 was also temporarily over. Articles about the contraceptive pill and the Z6 newspaper's criticism of the Catholic Church were too much for the strict bishop. Rusch had the keys to the youth centre changed without further ado, a method he also used at the Catholic Student Union when it got too close to a left-wing action group. The Tiroler Tageszeitung noted this in a small article on 1 August 1974:

"In recent weeks, there had been profound disputes between the educators and the bishop over fundamental issues. According to the bishop, the views expressed in "Z 6" were "no longer in line with church teaching". For example, the leadership of the centre granted young people absolute freedom of conscience without simultaneously recognising objective norms and also permitted sexual relations before marriage."

It was his adherence to conservative values and his stubbornness that damaged Rusch's reputation in the last 20 years of his life. When he was consecrated as the first bishop of the newly founded diocese of Innsbruck in 1964, times were changing. The progressive with practical life experience of the past was overtaken by the modern life of a new generation and the needs of the emerging consumer society. The bishop's constant criticism of the lifestyle of his flock and his stubborn adherence to his overly conservative values, coupled with some bizarre statements, turned the co-founder of development aid into a Brother in needthe young, hands-on bishop of the reconstruction, from the late 1960s onwards as a reason for leaving the church. His concept of repentance and penance took on bizarre forms. He demanded guilt and atonement from the Tyroleans for their misdemeanours during the Nazi era, but at the same time described the denazification laws as too far-reaching and strict. In response to the new sexual practices and abortion laws under Chancellor Kreisky, he said that girls and young women who have premature sexual intercourse are up to twelve times more likely to develop cancer of the mother's organs. Rusch described Hamburg as a cesspool of sin and he suspected that the simple minds of the Tyrolean population were not up to phenomena such as tourism and nightclubs and were tempted to immoral behaviour. He feared that technology and progress were making people too independent of God. He was strictly against the new custom of double income. People should be satisfied with a spiritual family home with a vegetable garden and not strive for more; women should concentrate on their traditional role as housewife and mother.

In 1973, after 35 years at the head of the church community in Tyrol and Innsbruck, Bishop Rusch was made an honorary citizen of the city of Innsbruck. He resigned from his office in 1981. In 1986, Innsbruck's first bishop was laid to rest in St Jakob's Cathedral. The Bishop Paul's Student Residence The church of St Peter Canisius in the Höttinger Au, which was built under him, commemorates him.

After its closure in 1974, the Z6 youth centre moved to Andreas-Hofer-Straße 11 before finding its current home in Dreiheiligenstraße, in the middle of the working-class district of the early modern period opposite the Pest Church. Jussuf Windischer remained in Innsbruck after working on social projects in Brazil. The father of four children continued to work with socially marginalised groups, was a lecturer at the Social Academy, prison chaplain and director of the Caritas Integration House in Innsbruck.

The MK also still exists today, even though the Kennedy House, which was converted into a Sigmund Kripp House was renamed, no longer exists. In 2005, Kripp was made an honorary citizen of the city of Innsbruck by his former sodalist and later deputy mayor, like Bishop Rusch before him.

Hardly any era is more difficult to grasp than the interwar period. The Roaring Twenties, jazz, and automobiles come to mind just as readily as inflation and economic crisis. In major cities like Berlin, young women carrying themselves as flappers with bobbed hair, cigarettes, and short skirts danced lasciviously to the new sounds. In Innsbruck, American drinks were served during Five O'Clock Tea at the bar in the Knights' Hall (Rittersaal) of the Cafe Gasthaus Zur Annasäule, which later became the Alt-Innsbruck. The suits of armor can still be admired in the bay window from Maria-Theresien-Straße. For the most part, however, as part of the young Republic of German-Austria, Innsbruck’s population belonged to the faction of poverty, economic crisis, and political polarization. Right from the start, the proclamation of the republic in front of the parliament in Vienna before more than 100,000 people—who were less enthusiastic than they were curious and unsettled—was anything but smooth, accompanied by riots, shootouts, two deaths, and 40 injuries. No one knew how things were supposed to continue after the end of the monarchy and the loss of a large part of the state territory. The new Austria seemed too small and incapable of surviving. The bureaucratic apparatus of the Austro-Hungarian Empire carried on seamlessly under a new flag and name. In the constitution, the federal states, as successors to the old crown lands, were granted a great deal of leeway in legislation and administration under the framework of federalism. However, enthusiasm for the new state among the population remained limited. Not only was the supply situation miserable after the loss of the vast majority of the former giant Habsburg empire, but people also distrusted the underlying concept of the republic. The monarchy had not been perfect, but very few people could relate to the idea of democracy. Instead of being subjects of the Emperor, people were now citizens, but only citizens of a dwarf state with an oversized capital that was little loved in the federal states, rather than citizens of a great empire. In the former crown lands, which were largely governed by the Christian Social Party, people frequently spoke of the "Viennese hydrocephalus" (Wiener Wasserkopf) that let itself be fed by the yields of the hardworking rural population. Other federal states also toyed with the idea of breaking away from the republic after the plan to join Germany, which was supported by all parties, was banned by the victorious powers of the First World War. The various Tyrolean plans, however, were particularly spectacular. From a neutral alpine state with other federal states, a free state consisting of Tyrol and Bavaria, or extending from Kufstein to Salurn, an annexation to Switzerland, all the way to a Catholic church-state under papal leadership, many options were considered. The most obvious solution was particularly popular. Feeling German was nothing new. So why not also attach oneself politically to the big brother to the north? This desire was highly pronounced, especially among urban elites and students. The annexation plan (Anschlussplan) received 98% approval in a vote in Tyrol, but it never came to fruition. In Innsbruck, the Tyrolean National Assembly (Tiroler Nationalversammlung) and the Tyrolean National Council (Tiroler Nationalrat)—a concentration government with members from all parties—constituted themselves in the autumn of 1918 from the members of the former provincial parliament (Landtag). The National Council had authority over the people's and citizens' militias (Volks- und Bürgerwehren), which had formed at the municipal level to maintain public order, at least on paper. Primarily between Innsbruck and the Brenner Pass, up to 50,000 soldiers were stationed at the railway stations, causing problems while waiting for their transport home.

Instead of becoming a part of Germany, Tyrol was occupied by the hated Wallsche (Italian forces). For nearly two years after the end of the war, Italian troops occupied Innsbruck. Following the complex and lengthy peace negotiations in Paris, it finally became a certainty: on October 10, 1920, the formal annexation of South Tyrol took place. At the Brenner Pass, the barrier gate went down. On the North Tyrolean side, only a few administrative and customs buildings were erected, but in the southern part of the village, large barracks shot out of the ground to secure the new border militarily. Historical Tyrol was split in two. In Innsbruck and many other Tyrolean municipalities, pompous mourning ceremonies were organized annually on this date for years. In 1924, the Innsbruck city council decided to name squares and streets around the main railway station after South Tyrolean cities. Bozner Platz as well as Brixner Straße and Salurner Straße still bear their names today. Many people on both sides of the Brenner felt betrayed. Although they had by no means won the war, they did not see themselves as losers to Italy. Hatred toward Italians reached its peak in the interwar period, even though the occupying forces acted with pronounced mildness. A passage from the 1930s short story collection "The Front Above the Peaks" (Die Front über den Gipfeln) by Karl Springenschmid reflects the general mood:

"The young girl says, 'Becoming Italian would be the worst thing.

Old Tappeiner just nods and grumbles: "I know it myself and we all know it: becoming a whale would be the worst thing."

Trouble was also brewing in domestic politics. The revolution in Russia and the subsequent civil war with millions of fatalities, expropriation, and a complete reversal of the system cast its long shadow all the way to Austria. The prospect of "Soviet conditions" terrified people. Austria was deeply divided. Capital and federal states, city and countryside, citizens, workers, and peasants—in the vacuum of the first postwar years, each group wanted to shape the future according to its own ideas. The cultural struggles of the late monarchy between conservatives, liberals, and socialists continued seamlessly. The rift existed not only on a political level. Morals, family, leisure activities, education, faith, legal understanding—every sphere of life was affected. Who should govern? How should wealth, rights, and duties be distributed? Liberals and the Tyrolean People's Party (Tiroler Volkspartei), which had emerged from the Peasants' League (Bauernbund), the People's Association (Volksverein), and the Catholic Working Class (Katholische Arbeiterschaft), were at least as hostile toward Social Democracy as they were toward the federal capital of Vienna and the Italian occupiers. A communist overthrow was not a real danger, especially in Tyrol, but it was effectively instrumentalized in the media as a threat to bring Social Democracy into disrepute. Although a workers', peasants', and soldiers' council (Arbeiter-, Bauern- und Soldatenrat) modeled on the Soviet system had proclaimed itself in Innsbruck in 1919, its influence remained minimal and it was supported by no political party. From 1920 onward, so-called soldiers' councils were officially formed, but like the rest of politics, they were dominated by the Christian Socials. The conservative peasant and bourgeois camp right of center militarized itself more professionally with the Tyrolean Homeland Guard (Tiroler Heimatwehr) and enjoyed a stronger influx of members than leftist groups, also thanks to church support. From church pulpits and in conservative media, Social Democracy was referred to as the "party of Jews" (Judenpartei) and homeless traitors to the fatherland. People were all too eager to blame them for the lost war and its consequences. The Tiroler Anzeiger summed up the public fears: "Woe to the Christian people if the Jew-Socialists win the elections!".

While the Tyrolean People's Party dominated in rural districts, Social Democracy in Innsbruck under the leadership of Martin Rapoldi always managed to win between 30% and 50% of the vote in elections from 1919 onward, despite the strong headwinds. Under the new municipal code of 1919, which provided for universal suffrage for all adults, the city council comprised 40 members. Out of 24,644 citizens called to the ballot box, an incredible 24,060 exercised their right to vote. A certain degree of emancipation also became noticeable. Right from the first city council with free elections, three women were represented. The fact that the Social Democrats did not secure the mayoral seat was due to the majorities in the city council formed by alliances among the other parties.

High politics, however, was merely the backdrop to the actual misery. Martin Rapoldi got straight to the point in September 1919: "Gentlemen, for the moment the constitutional question is completely secondary to the population, as is whether the province has more rights or fewer rights. More potatoes is the slogan in our province." Time and again, looting and hunger riots broke out in the provincial capital. Those who had money could supply themselves with food on the black market; the rest depended on charity from foreign aid shipments. Long after the war, the province of Tyrol still required outside help to feed its population. Under the headline "Significant Expansion of the American Child Relief Action in Tyrol," the Innsbrucker Nachrichten reported on April 9, 1921: "Taking into account the needs of the province of Tyrol, the American representatives for Austria have most generously increased the daily number of meals to 18,000 portions." Alongside hunger, medical care was a major issue. The epidemic that went down in history as the Spanish Flu also took its toll in Innsbruck in the years after the war. Exact numbers were not recorded; worldwide, the number of fatalities is estimated at 27 to 50 million. In Innsbruck, at the height of the Spanish Flu, around 100 victims are said to have succumbed to the disease daily. Many Innsbruckers had not returned home from the battlefields and were missing as fathers, husbands, and workers. Many of those who did make it back were wounded and scarred by the horrors of war. As late as February 1920, the "Tyrolean Committee of Siberians" (Tiroler Ausschuss der Sibirier) organized a benefit evening at the Gasthof Breinößl "…in favor of the fund for the repatriation of our prisoners of war…". On top of this came unemployment. Civil servants and public sector employees in particular had lost their jobs after the League of Nations tied its loan to harsh austerity measures. Public sector salaries were cut. Strikes occurred repeatedly. Tourism as an economic factor was nonexistent due to the problems in the surrounding countries, which were likewise ravaged by the war. The construction industry, which had been booming before the war, collapsed completely. Innsbruck’s largest company, Huter & Söhne, had over 700 employees in 1913; at the peak of the economic crisis in 1933, only 18 remained. The middle class largely collapsed. The average Innsbrucker was destitute and malnourished. Often, no more than 800 calories per day could be scraped together. In this climate of poverty, the crime rate was higher than ever before. Many people lost their homes. In 1922, 3,000 families in Innsbruck were looking for accommodation despite a municipal emergency housing program that had already been in effect for several years. Apartments were built into every available property. On February 11, 1921, a long list in the Innsbrucker Nachrichten detailing the individual projects under way included this item:

"The municipal hospital has vacated the epidemic barracks in Pradl and placed them at the disposal of the municipality for the creation of emergency housing. The necessary credit of 295 K (Editor's note: Kronen) was approved for the construction of 7 emergency apartments."

In the early years, there was hardly any improvement in people's everyday lives. The central government had little enforcement power in distant federal states like Tyrol. For a time, Innsbruck, like many other Austrian municipalities, even began printing its own money. The amount of money in circulation rose from 12 billion kronen to over 3 trillion kronen between 1920 and 1922. An epochal inflation was the result. Then, politics woke up from its lethargy. Under Chancellor Ignaz Seipel, the Republic managed to secure a League of Nations loan. The krone, a relic of the monarchy, was replaced by the schilling as the official currency of Austria on January 1, 1925. Between 1918 and 1922, the old currency had lost more than 95% of its value against the dollar relative to the pre-war exchange rate. With the currency stabilization following the League of Nations loan, however, not only did banks and citizens recover, but public sector construction orders also picked up again. Innsbruck modernized. What economists call a sham boom (Scheinblüte) occurred. This short-term economic recovery was a bubble, but it brought major residential construction and infrastructure projects to the city of Innsbruck. In Innsbruck, there are no deliberate places of remembrance dedicated to the creation of the First Republic. The heritage-protected residential complexes such as the Schlachthofblock, the Pembaurblock, the Mandelsbergerblock, the Pembaurschule, the municipal indoor swimming pool (Städtisches Hallenbad), the Höhenstraße up to the Hungerburg, and the cable cars onto the Patscherkofel and Nordkette are contemporary witnesses that remain in operation to this day. The city purchased the Achensee lake and, as the main shareholder of TIWAG, built the power plant in Jenbach. In 1930, the Universitätsbrücke bridge connected the clinic in Wilten with the Höttinger Au. On the Sill river, the Pembaurbrücke and the Prinz-Eugen-Brücke were constructed. In Reichenau, the first airfield opened on June 1, 1925, involving Innsbruck in air traffic 65 years after the opening of the railway line. Many interested onlookers gathered on the meadow east of the city to witness the event. A monument to the pilots who fell in the World War was unveiled before the German airline Aero Lloyd took off for Munich in a single-engine Fokker-Grulich F III. In the autumn, the integration of the new airfield into the Strasbourg – Zurich – Innsbruck – Vienna route by the French Compagnie Internationale de Navigation followed. Thanks to the daring efforts of pilot Raoul Stojsawljewic, remote regions and alpine mountain huts could now also be supplied with food from Innsbruck, as a report in the Innsbrucker Nachrichten from June 7, 1926, shows:

"In fine weather yesterday morning, Major Stojsawljewic from German Lufthansa took off with his aircraft and flew toward Kühtai, where he dropped free beer, donated by the 'Löwenbräu' brewery, by parachute from a low altitude. At 10 o'clock, the Patscherkofelhaus was approached and beer from the Zipf brewery was dropped..."

Trotz der kurzzeitigen Höhenflüge war die Erste Republik auch auf lokaler Ebene eine schwere Geburt und sie sollte nicht lange Bestand haben, obwohl viel Positives seinen Anfang nahm. Aus Untertanen wurden Bürger. Was in der Zeit Maria Theresias begann, wurde nun unter neuen Vorzeichen weitergeführt. Der Wechsel vom Untertanen zum Bürger zeichnete sich nicht nur durch ein neues Wahlrecht, sondern vor allem durch die verstärkte Obsorge des Staates aus. Staatliche Regelungen, Schulen, Kindergärten, Arbeitsämter, Krankenhäuser und städtische Wohnanlagen traten an die Stelle des Wohlwollens von Grundherrn, Landesfürsten, wohlhabender Bürger, der Monarchie und der Kirche. Bis heute basiert vieles im österreichischen Staatswesen sowie im Innsbrucker Stadtbild und der Infrastruktur auf dem, was nach dem Zusammenbruch der Monarchie entstanden war. Auch gesellschaftliche Bräuche und alltägliche Lebenseinstellungen veränderten sich in der Republik nach dem Zusammenbruch der Monarchie. Der 1925 eingeführte Weltspartag erinnert alljährlich an die Einführung des Schillings und die Mahnung an Kinder und Erwachsene zum verantwortungsvollen Umgang mit Geld. Die Handschrift der jungen Massenparteien und das neue Verhältnis zwischen Zentralstaat und Bürger sind bei allem Lokalpatriotismus unübersehbar.

Wie der Lauf der Geschichte der Stadt unterliegt auch ihr Aussehen einem ständigen Wandel. Besonders gut sichtbare Veränderungen im Stadtbild erzeugten die Jahre rund um 1500 und zwischen 1850 bis 1900, als sich politische, wirtschaftliche und gesellschaftliche Veränderungen in besonders schnellem Tempo abspielten. Das einschneidendste Ereignis mit den größten Auswirkungen auf das Stadtbild waren aber wohl die Luftangriffe auf die Stadt im Zweiten Weltkrieg, als aus der „Heimatfront“ der Nationalsozialisten ein tatsächlicher Kriegsschauplatz wurde. Die Lage am Fuße des Brenners war über Jahrhunderte ein Segen für die Stadt gewesen, nun wurde sie zum Verhängnis. Innsbruck war ein wichtiger Versorgungsbahnhof für den Nachschub an der Italienfront. In der Nacht vom 15. auf den 16. Dezember 1943 erfolgte der erste alliierte Luftangriff auf die schlecht vorbereitete Stadt. 269 Menschen fielen den Bomben zum Opfer, 500 wurden verletzt und mehr als 1500 obdachlos. Über 300 Gebäude, vor allem in Wilten und der Innenstadt, wurden zerstört und beschädigt. Am Montag, den 18. Dezember fanden sich in den Innsbrucker Nachrichten, dem Vorgänger der Tiroler Tageszeitung, auf der Titelseite allerhand propagandistische Meldungen vom erfolgreichen und heroischen Abwehrkampf der Deutschen Wehrmacht an allen Fronten gegenüber dem Bündnis aus Anglo-Amerikanern und dem Russen, nicht aber vom Bombenangriff auf Innsbruck.

Bombenterror über Innsbruck

Innsbruck, 17. Dez. Der 16. Dezember wird in der Geschichte Innsbrucks als der Tag vermerkt bleiben, an dem der Luftterror der Anglo-Amerikaner die Gauhauptstadt mit der ganzen Schwere dieser gemeinen und brutalen Kampfweise, die man nicht mehr Kriegführung nennen kann, getroffen hat. In mehreren Wellen flogen feindliche Kampfverbände die Stadt an und richteten ihre Angriffe mit zahlreichen Spreng- und Brandbomben gegen die Wohngebiete. Schwerste Schäden an Wohngebäuden, an Krankenhäusern und anderen Gemeinschaftseinrichtungen waren das traurige, alle bisherigen Schäden übersteigende Ergebnis dieses verbrecherischen Überfalles, der über zahlreiche Familien unserer Stadt schwerste Leiden und empfindliche Belastung der Lebensführung, das bittere Los der Vernichtung liebgewordenen Besitzes, der Zerstörung von Heim und Herd und der Heimatlosigkeit gebracht hat. Grenzenloser Haß und das glühende Verlangen diese unmenschliche Untat mit schonungsloser Schärfe zu vergelten, sind die einzige Empfindung, die außer der Auseinandersetzung mit den eigenen und den Gemeinschaftssorgen alle Gemüter bewegt. Wir alle blicken voll Vertrauen auf unsere Soldaten und erwarten mit Zuversicht den Tag, an dem der Führer den Befehl geben wird, ihre geballte Kraft mit neuen Waffen gegen den Feind im Westen einzusetzen, der durch seinen Mord- und Brandterror gegen Wehrlose neuerdings bewiesen hat, daß er sich von den asiatischen Bestien im Osten durch nichts unterscheidet – es wäre denn durch größere Feigheit. Die Luftschutzeinrichtungen der Stadt haben sich ebenso bewährt, wie die Luftschutzdisziplin der Bevölkerung. Bis zur Stunde sind 26 Gefallene gemeldet, deren Zahl sich aller Voraussicht nach nicht wesentlich erhöhen dürfte. Die Hilfsmaßnahmen haben unter Führung der Partei und tatkräftigen Mitarbeit der Wehrmacht sofort und wirkungsvoll eingesetzt.

Diese durch Zensur und Gleichschaltung der Medien fantasievoll gestaltete Nachricht schaffte es gerade mal auf Seite 3. Prominenter wollte man die schlechte Vorbereitung der Stadt auf das absehbare Bombardement wohl nicht dem Volkskörper präsentieren. Ganz so groß wie 1938 nach dem Anschluss, als Hitler am 5. April von 100.000 Menschen in Innsbruck begeistert empfangen worden war, war die Begeisterung für den Nationalsozialismus nicht mehr. Zu groß waren die Schäden an der Stadt und die persönlichen, tragischen Verluste in der Bevölkerung. Dass die sterblichen Überreste der Opfer des Luftangriffes vom 15. Dezember 1943 am heutigen Landhausplatz vor dem neu errichteten Gauhaus als Symbol nationalsozialistischer Macht im Stadtbild aufgebahrt wurden, zeugt von trauriger Ironie des Schicksals.

Im Jänner 1944 begann man Luftschutzstollen und andere Schutzmaßnahmen zu errichten. Die Arbeiten wurden zu einem großen Teil von Gefangenen des Konzentrationslagers Reichenau durchgeführt. Insgesamt wurde Innsbruck zwischen 1943 und 1945 zweiundzwanzig Mal angegriffen. Dabei wurden knapp 3833, also knapp 50%, der Gebäude in der Stadt beschädigt und 504 Menschen starben. In den letzten Kriegsmonaten war an Normalität nicht mehr zu denken. Die Bevölkerung lebte in dauerhafter Angst. Die Schulen wurden bereits vormittags geschlossen. An einen geregelten Alltag war nicht mehr zu denken. Die Stadt wurde zum Glück nur Opfer gezielter Angriffe. Deutsche Städte wie Hamburg oder Dresden wurden von den Alliierten mit Feuerstürmen mit Zehntausenden Toten innerhalb weniger Stunden komplett dem Erdboden gleichgemacht. Viele Gebäude wie die Jesuitenkirche, das Stift Wilten, die Servitenkirche, der Dom, das Hallenbad in der Amraserstraße wurden getroffen. Besondere Behandlung erfuhren während der Angriffe historische Gebäude und Denkmäler. Das Goldene Dachl was protected with a special construction, as was Maximilian's sarcophagus in the Hofkirche. The figures in the Hofkirche, the Schwarzen Mannder, wurden nach Kundl gebracht. Die Madonna Lucas Cranachs aus dem Innsbrucker Dom wurde während des Krieges ins Ötztal überführt.

Der Luftschutzstollen südlich von Innsbruck an der Brennerstraße und die Kennzeichnungen von Häusern mit Luftschutzkellern mit ihren schwarzen Vierecken und den weißen Kreisen und Pfeilen kann man heute noch begutachten. Zwei der Stellungen der Flugabwehrgeschütze, mittlerweile nur noch zugewachsene Mauerreste, können am Lanser Köpfl oberhalb von Innsbruck besichtigt werden. In Pradl, wo neben Wilten die meisten Gebäude beschädigt wurden, weisen an den betroffenen Häusern Bronzetafeln mit dem Hinweis auf den Wiederaufbau auf einen Bombentreffer hin.

As after World War I, housing shortages were one of the most pressing problems after 1945. Innsbruck had suffered heavy damage during air raids, and money for new construction was scarce. When the first housing complexes were built in the 1950s, thrift was the order of the day. Many of the buildings erected from the 1950s onward may be architecturally unattractive, but they contain interesting artworks. From 1949 onward, Austria implemented the “Art in Architecture” project (Kunst am Bau). For state-funded construction projects, 2% of total expenditures were to be allocated to artistic design. The implementation of building regulations and thus the management of budgets was, as then and now, the responsibility of the federal states. Through these public commissions, artists were to be financially supported. In the lean post-war years, even successful and practically minded artists such as Oswald Haller (1908–1981), who earned money with commercial graphics and tourism posters, faced difficulties. The idea first appeared in 1919 in the Weimar Republic and was continued by the National Socialists from 1934 onward. Austria revived Kunst am Bau after the war to shape public spaces during reconstruction. The public sector, which replaced aristocracy and bourgeoisie as builders of previous centuries, was under massive financial pressure. Nevertheless, the primarily functional housing projects were not to appear entirely without ornamentation. Tyrolean artists entrusted with designing the artworks were selected through public competitions. The most famous among them was Max Weiler, perhaps the most prominent artist in post-war Tyrol, responsible for the frescoes in the Theresienkirche on the Hungerburg in Innsbruck. Other notable names include Helmut Rehm (1911–1991), Walter Honeder (1906–2006), Fritz Berger (1916–2002), and Emmerich Kerle (1916–2010). Many of these artists were shaped not only by the Federal Trade School in Innsbruck (today’s HTL) and the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna but also by the collective experience of National Socialism and the war. Fritz Berger had lost his right arm and an eye and had to learn to work with his left hand. Kerle served in Finland as a war painter and was taught at the Academy by Josef Müllner, an artist who entered art history with busts of Adolf Hitler, Siegfried from the Nibelungen saga, and the still controversial Karl Lueger monument in Vienna. Like much of the Tyrolean population, these artists—as well as politicians and officials—wanted peace and quiet after the harsh and painful war years, to let the grass grow over the events of the past decades. The works created under Kunst am Bau reflect this attitude toward a new moral order. It was the first time abstract, formless art entered Innsbruck’s public space, albeit only in an uncritical context. Fairy tales, legends, and religious symbols were popular motifs immortalized in sgraffitos, mosaics, murals, and statues. One could speak of a kind of second wave of Biedermeier art, symbolizing the petty-bourgeois lifestyle of people after the war. Art was also intended to create a new awareness and image of what was considered typically Austrian. As late as 1955, every second Austrian still regarded themselves as German. The various motifs depict leisure activities, clothing styles, and notions of social order and norms of the post-war era. Women were often shown in traditional dress and dirndls, men in lederhosen. Conservative ideals of gender roles were reflected in the art: hardworking fathers, dutiful wives caring for home and hearth, and children diligently learning at school were the ideal image well into the 1970s—a life like in a Peter Alexander film. Those who walk attentively through the city will find many of these still-visible artworks on houses in Pradl and Wilten. The mix of unremarkable architecture and contemporary artworks from the often-suppressed, long-idealized post-war era is worth seeing. Particularly beautiful examples can be found on façades in Pacherstraße, Hunoldstraße, Ing.-Thommenstraße, Innrain, at the Landesberufsschule Mandelsbergerstraße, or in the courtyard between Landhausplatz and Maria-Theresien-Straße.